Pompeii, spanning over seven centuries of history, was a melting pot of cultures (Etruscan, Greek, Samnite, and Roman) that left an indelible mark on its religious life. Archaeology reveals a complex cultural dialogue among the local Samnite tradition, the Roman model, and Mediterranean Hellenism, with religio serving as a pivotal element in the settlement system and in defining the structure of social relationships.
Faith in Pompeii was expressed through a rich panorama of cults, ranging from public civic practices, such as amphitheatrical games and traditional divine celebrations, to private and mystery rites.
1. Civic Cults and Ancient Roots
Since its foundation in the early 6th century BC, the urban structure of Pompeii was marked by the presence of sacred areas.
Apollo and Athena (Minerva):
The sanctuaries of Apollo and Athena (the latter located in the Triangular Forum) are among the city's oldest places of worship, attested from the first half of the 6th century BC.
- The Sanctuary of Apollo was built at a strategic point, along the road leading from Porta Marina to the public heart of the city. The selection of Apollo as a founding deity reflects the presence of Greeks and Etruscans in Campania. The oldest votive finds indicate a predominant role for wine consumption in the ritual lexicon.
- The sanctuary in the Triangular Forum was dedicated to Athena, as attested by a known Eituns inscription. Hercules was also associated with Athena in this location. This cult appears to have had a function of prophylaxis (protection) for young women, relating to the normative transition to adulthood and the status of wife, a relevant theme in Italic communities in contact with Greek cities.
During the Samnite period (4th–1st century BC), in contrast to the archaic era characterized by "international" exchanges, these sanctuaries functioned as "local" cult sites frequented by members of the community, helping to define the geometry of social relationships through their cults.
Cult of the Dead and Funerary Rites:
The Law of the Twelve Tables prohibited the burial or cremation of the deceased inside the city walls (Hominem mortuum ne sepelito neve urito). Funerary areas therefore developed along the roads leading out of the urban gates.
- The funerary area near Porta Sarno was active from the Samnite period until the eruption. Cremation burials have been found there.
- Monumental tombs, such as the schola (semicircular bench) of the public priestess Mammia or that of Numerius Agrestinus Equitius Pulcher (a duumvir iure dicundo iterum in the Augustan age), are found outside the gates. The latter's inscription suggests Hispanic connections and invites reflection on Pompeii's role within a multicultural Mediterranean.
- A significant recent finding in the Porta Sarno area is the tomb of Marcus Venerius Secundio, a former public slave (servus publicus) and custodian of the Temple of Venus, who, once freed, became an Augustalis (a priest dedicated to the imperial cult). The epitaph records that he organized Greek and Latin ludi (shows) for four days. This is considered the first certain evidence of performances in the Hellenic language in Pompeii, confirming the city's lively and open cultural atmosphere during the early imperial age, where Greek was the lingua franca of the Eastern Mediterranean alongside Latin. The deceased showed partial mummification, and analysis of the fabric might determine whether this was intentional, perhaps using materials like asbestos (asbesto), known from sources for embalming.
The sacred texture of the surrounding territory was also connected to the economic life of Pompeii, with cults dedicated to Hercules, Liber, and Ceres.
2. Oriental and Hellenistic Cults
Pompeii was open to external influences, and Roman expansion in the Mediterranean favored the introduction of new cults.
Isis and the Egyptian Temple:
Egyptian cults, particularly that of Isis, were practiced publicly in the temple and privately in domestic lararia. The Temple of Isis in the theater district is the only documented Egyptian religious building found in an exceptional state of preservation.
- The cult of Isis, a salvific and ecumenical deity who promised initiates resurrection like Osiris, was widely popular. This popularity spread across all social levels, including aristocrats (like Poppaeus of the House of the Gilded Cupids), merchants, actors, and people of servile origin.
- Membership in such a salvific cult provided identity and answers amid the uncertainties of the late Republic and Empire.
- After the earthquake of 62 AD, the temple was completely rebuilt (a fundamento) by a wealthy freedman, N. Popidius Ampliatus, in the name of his son Celsinus, an act of beneficence that allowed the six-year-old child to be admitted to the local senate. This highlights the role of imported cults as a factor in social integration.
- Isiac devotion was also practiced domestically in lararia, sometimes replacing traditional household gods (Genius of the paterfamilias, Lares, Penates) with the Alexandrian triad: Isis, Osiris, and Harpocrates.
Dionysus (Bacchus) and Attis:
- The cult of Dionysus is attested in Pompeii, showcasing the city's close ties with the Greek world. The Villa of the Mysteries, located outside the urban walls, is famous for its large 2nd Style frieze with Dionysian themes. This theme reflected tryphé (a pleasant lifestyle) and was adopted by the Roman aristocracy in their private villas, where they engaged in a new lifestyle of otium (leisure).
- Traces of the cult of Cybele and Attis (Magna Mater) have been found, including fragments of a female terracotta figurine representing a head with a polos (possibly Cybele) and ex voto items. A preserved glass pine cone (pigna in vetro) recalls a ritual in which priests of this cult would beat their chests with pine cones during ceremonies commemorating Attis' death.
3. The Imperial Cult and Roman Identity
With the foundation of the Roman colony and particularly the advent of Augustus, religion became a crucial vehicle for political ideology.
Venus Pompeiana and the Link with Rome:
Venus Pompeiana, protector of navigators, was venerated in a temple in the city's heart, overlooking the gulf. Under Augustus, Venus was regarded as the emperor's divine ancestor.
- Roman expansion into the Mediterranean influenced religious geography. The ancient temples of the Samnite city, like that of Apollo, maintained their role as a social unifier and guarantor of identity, even after being renovated according to Hellenistic models.
- It is known that the emperor Nero and his consort Poppaea made offerings to Venus Pompeiana, including jewels and a significant quantity of gold, possibly related to childbirth.
Augustus and Pietas:
Augustus's policy of religious and cultural renewal was based on the theme of pietas (piety), aiming for a return to ancient faith to restore Roman virtues. Influential families in Pompeii aligned themselves with this program.
- The Imperial Cult served as a means for notables to express loyalty and gain prestige. Examples include M. Holconius Rufus, the first certainly attested priest of Augustus (Augusti sacerdos), who was honored by the emperor with the title of tribunus militum a populo, and whose statue was erected opposite the Stabian Baths.
- Mammia, a public priestess (sacerdos publica), dedicated a temple to the Genius Augusti (Genius of Augustus) at her own expense. The Genius Augusti could only be venerated in association with the Lares.
4. The Sacred within Domestic Walls: Lararia
Domestic worship maintained strong continuity. Lararia were altars or shrines dedicated to the Lares, deities who protected the house and family.
- The presence of cult arrangements distributed throughout Pompeian homes was numerous, although not all were dedicated to the Lares, who guaranteed the continuity of the family nucleus alongside Vesta and the Penates. These domestic cult arrangements were almost exclusively located in or near the kitchen, the seat of the hearth.
- The discovery of an elaborate Lararium (attributed to the 4th Style) in House IX 10, 1 (the baker's house of Rustius Verus) provided details on domestic ritual practices.
- Analysis of organic remains in the altar of this lararium demonstrated that the carbonization of the finds (including pine cones, pine nuts, dried figs, entire eggs, grape seeds, and olive stones) was caused by ritual fire (in an oxidizing environment) and not by the eruption.
- Ritual practices involved lighting a small fire and placing unburnt items (like a whole egg) over the burnt offerings and embers to conclude the rite.
- The selection of species used for these offerings—such as pine cones, pine nuts, dried fruits (figs, dates), and eggs—is consistent with findings in other ritual contexts and with depictions in lararia frescoes, suggesting a degree of standardization in practices.
- The specific room (Room 12) containing this lararium also featured electoral messages supporting the candidate aedile A. Rustius Verus. This suggests that the election campaign permeated domestic walls, reaching even intimate, religious spaces.
FAQ: Religions and Cults in Pompeii
Q1: What are the oldest civic cults in Pompeii?
The oldest documented cults in Pompeii, dating back to the first half of the 6th century BC, are those dedicated to Apollo and Athena (Minerva).
- The Sanctuary of Apollo was built in a strategic location. Ancient votive finds suggest that wine consumption played a predominant role in the ritual lexicon of this sanctuary.
- The sanctuary in the Triangular Forum was dedicated to Athena. This cult, also associated with Hercules, seems to have provided prophylaxis for young women, linked to their transition to adulthood and the status of wife, a relevant theme in Italic communities interacting with Greek cities.
Q2: How was the Imperial Cult reflected in Pompeii's religious and political life?
The Imperial Cult, particularly under Augustus, was a key vehicle for political ideology and social cohesion.
- Venus Pompeiana, viewed as the protectress of navigators, was venerated in the city center, and under Augustus, she was considered the emperor's ancestor.
- Local notables aligned with Augustus's program of religious renewal based on pietas. Mammia, a public priestess (sacerdos publica), funded a temple dedicated to the Genius Augusti (Genius of Augustus) at her own expense.
- M. Holconius Rufus, the first securely attested priest of Augustus (Augusti sacerdos), was rewarded with the title of tribunus militum a populo. His statue was erected opposite the Stabian Baths.
Q3: Which "Oriental" cults were widespread in Pompeii and what was their social impact?
Pompeii was influenced by Hellenistic and Oriental cults, facilitated by Roman expansion.
- Isis: The Egyptian cult of Isis was widely popular due to its message of salvation and promise of resurrection (like Osiris). The Temple of Isis was rebuilt after the earthquake of 62 AD by the freedman N. Popidius Ampliatus on behalf of his son, Celsinus, enabling the boy's acceptance into the local senate.
- Dionysus (Bacchus): The Dionysian cult is attested. The Villa of the Mysteries is famed for its 2nd Style Dionysian frieze. These themes often reflected the concept of otium (leisure) and tryphé (pleasurable living) embraced by the elite in their private villas.
- Cybele and Attis: Evidence of the cult of the Magna Mater includes a glass pine cone found as an ex voto, referencing the ritual practice of priests beating their chests with pine cones during ceremonies commemorating Attis’s death.
Q4: What were Lararia, and what offerings were placed there?
Lararia were shrines or altars used for domestic worship of the Lares, deities protecting the household and family.
- Domestic cult practices included setting small fires. The analysis of organic residues in the lararium of House IX 10, 1 confirmed that the carbonization of finds occurred due to a ritual fire in an oxidizing environment, distinguishing it from the effects of the eruption.
- Offerings included items consistent with ritual standardization: pine cones, pine nuts, dried fruits (such as figs and dates), whole eggs, and grape seeds. Olive stones were sometimes used as supplementary fuel for the ritual fire.
Q5: What was the role of Marcus Venerius Secundio and why is his tomb considered exceptional?
Marcus Venerius Secundio was an Augustalis (imperial cult priest) and a former public slave (servus publicus).
- His epitaph records that he "gave Greek and Latin ludi (games/shows) for four days". This inscription provides the first certain evidence of performances in the Hellenic language in Pompeii.
- His burial, found near Porta Sarno, is exceptional because the deceased showed partial mummification. Further analysis of associated fabric might determine if this was an intentional treatment, potentially using materials like asbestos (asbesto), known from historical sources for embalming.
Q6: Did mythological depictions in private homes hold religious or political meaning?
Yes, mythological and decorative programs often conveyed complex messages related to both Hellenistic culture and Roman ideology.
- In the House of the Painters at Work (Casa dei Pittori al Lavoro), frescoes included the scene of the Purification of Orestes. Orestes is shown holding the sword used to commit matricide. The composition, combining the goddess (possibly Diana/Hecate or Ceres) and the use of lustral water/laurel for purification, may reflect a sophisticated Augustan propaganda context.
- Another unique painting depicts a cloaked child (cucullatus) in a Dionysian apotheosis, seated among grape clusters. Given the context and the depiction of Dionysus "in presence," it has been suggested that this might be the portrait of the deceased son of the owner. This and other elements, such as a girl dressed as a cult assistant (possibly the owner's daughter), suggest a cohesive "familial" interpretation of the decoration.
Q7: What was the attitude of Pompeians toward the gods in the face of the eruption?
Sources indicate varied reactions to the 79 AD catastrophe. Pliny the Younger reported that:
- "Many raised their hands toward the gods".
- But "even more believed that there were no gods left anywhere and that this was a new, eternal night for the world".
- This suggests a spectrum of responses, from fervent prayer to existential despair.
